LAD #21: Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth

       As one of the richest men to walk this Earth, Andrew Carnegie speaks not as a selfish billionaire but as a person who has accumulated wealth and now unsure of how to best spend it. As a man who held more money than some countries, the question of the relationship between the poor and the wealthy inevitably began to pop up in Carnegie's mind. He believed that in a few hundred years the deveoplement and progress of man has not changed, but revolutionized. This growth is what measures what has come of civilization. It is in the parlors and homes of the wealthy that literature, art, and the refinements of society are born so it is essential that some people accumulate wealth to allow themselves to discuss such things.
      How though can all people be wealthy although laws have forced the majority of this wealth onto the few? Somewhat paradoxically Carnegie says that families should not chase wealth, but only have required for "the comfortable maintenance and education of families." He believes people should not be wealty but competent in their finances and that this, not chasing large fortunes, should be the goal. Those who have a surplus of wealth have three ways to dispose of their wealth, although there are better choices than others. A person can leave their money and estate to their descendants, to the public, or lastly give it away during their lives. Carnegie believed the first way is just misguided affection, as their successors can fall victim to depreciated land or money and that it only burdens their children. The second is only the last resort of a man wishing to give after he has died. The growth of taxing the estates of the dead grew and this, to Carnegie, is a wise tax. This hopefully will induce the rich to give will their are alive, instead of wait selfishly until they are dead. The third option is the fairest and best use of a fortune. As many yell out in disagreement calling it Communism, it is only the excess of the wealthy being redistirbuted to those in need. This to Carnegie is fair as he believed a person and their family should only have enough to live comfortably, not lavishly. The donations of the wealthy should not be given in large sums infrequently but slowly over time as this is more useful to those who struggle.
      This is how people should live. As they have earned enough to live well, they should see their excess as money to be used to help those who cannot help themselves.

LAD #20: Emancipation Proclamation

         The Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln essential says two things. He says that all slaves held in southern states, or states that were currently in rebellion, were declared free in the Union and would be respected by the military and navy. Secondly, he lists all that states that were in rebellion and that the proclamation applied to. Lincoln was very specific in excluding some areas of Virginia and Louisiana but rattled out Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia. Any slaves in these states were free and would have their rights maintained in the North.

LAD #19: Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address

       As he spoke to the crowd that had gathered, Lincoln's second inaugural address had a different tone and objective than the first. He begins by stating the situation of the war, which according to him and the majority of the population, is satisfactory. Then moving to the divisions caused by slavery that had led to war. Unlike many believe, neither side wanted war but rather went to that extreme as they saw it as their only option. Secessionists saw it as the only way for their demands to be met, and the Unionists saw it a the only way to preserve the union itself. Perhaps not speaking entirely as a president but as someone angry with the evils of slavery when talks of those who "[wring] their bread from the sweat of other men's faces, but let us judge not, that we be not judged." He goes on to make more important points when he talks of the will of God when it comes to the war. He believes that the Southerners have committed an offense against God, and that they should not go to Him for protection. Though he also says that if the will of God is to continue to use of slavery to build up wealth, that they would have to follow Him. In conclusion, Lincoln believes that with the end of the war the nation should heal the wounded and enjoy peace.

LAD #18: Dred Scott Decision

       As the appealed case of Dred Scott v. Sanford came to an end, Chief Justice Taney sided with Sanford. Scott, a slave and the son of immigrants, was decided as not a legal citizen of the United States and therefore was not guaranteed the rights each citizens are given in the Constitution. Taney saw no distinction between Scott and other forms of property, so technically Scott never could have claimed his rights had been violated. And more disturbingly, Scott was not allowed to sue in State or Federal Courts. Sanford, as the owner and a citizen of the United States, was entitled these rights under the Constitution as the government cannot interfere with a citizen's property. As a result, the court had to ensure Sanford's ownership over Scott. This essentially discarded the Missouri Compromise, as now it seemed that the line established held no more power. Scott had entered the free state of Illinois and was still considered property, and in turn could not sue as he did not have the right. In the end, Taney found that the Compromise was unconstitutional.

LAD #16: "What to the Slave is the 4th of July?"

      Contrasting the celebrations of the 4th of July, Frederick Douglass asks a sobering question. As people celebrate the birth of our nation he wonders whether or not the quintessential rights listed in the Declaration of Independence apply to slaves and African-Americans. The jubilee that comes with independence is not shared with the slaves and blacks, and as a result both races seem to grow distant. "The rich inheritance of justice, liberty, prosperity, and independence bequeathed by your fathers is shared by you, not by [him]." This resentment felt by the slaves and free blacks hurt was born from the United States shameful past. A past where slaves were beaten an bloodied and the ideas of the Constitution and Declaration of Independence are trample on. They lived in the land of the free and the home of the brave, and yet only a select few enjoyed freedom. Blacks were void of rights and cast down as inferior, but then Douglass asserts that blacks and whites are equal. While the slaves were working in the fields they were not only cultivating cotton but minds, as there were lawyers, teachers, poets, and Christians among them. They were "engaged in all manner of enterprises common to other men," and believed that their equality logically would follow. As Douglass is nearing the end of his speech, and about to prove his point. The 4th of July is not a celebration but a sham. The independence Americans claim is not real, and is in fact the largest hypocrisy on Earth where horrible atrocities have been committed against a race that was only asking for equality.

LAD #17: "Aint I a Woman?"

         The Woman's Convention in Akron, Ohio was thes stage for Sojourner Truth to chastise society for its sexist and racial prejudices. She realizes the change that will come from Northern women and slaves. Seeing some women gaining ground on the basis that women "need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches", Soujourner asks a somewhat paradoxical question. No one "helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place!", but isn't she a woman? By questioning logic, Soujourner reveals that men do not view her as a lady but almost a creature of a lesser race. They hold prejudices against her because she is a slave, and does not deserve the helping hand that white women receive. She even defends womanhood by explaining the power she and other women have. She has "ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns," and "borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery." When she cried out in protest "none but Jesus heard [her]!" And while some had argued that women and slaves should not have rights because they lacked intellect, she rebutted by explaining that it intelligence should not be a way to measure the amount of rights a person can have. In the face of the religious traditionalists she concludes by explaining that it was after all God and a woman that birthed Christ, as "Man had nothing to do with Him."

LAD #15: The Gettysburg Address

      As blood was still wet on the fields at Gettysburg, Lincoln addressed a nation that was in its darkest hour. In the the Gettysburg Address, the president commemorated the soldiers who had just given their live while emphasizing the fact that the preservation of the Union was at the forefront. While he talks of grave matters, Lincoln can not add any value of worth to the sacrifices the Union soldiers just made. They had, by giving their lives, consecrated the lands with their blood. He continues by saying that the living cannot merely remember the dead, but justify their death by continue to pursue the goal had led to their demise. The goal to preserve a free government created of, by and for the people, one that will continue to protect the rights of its citizens as intended by the Founding Fathers.

LAD #14: Lincoln's First Inaugural Address

      
      In his first inaugural address, Lincoln addresses the issue of slavery which had become a serious problem. He makes it very clear that he has no intention of interfering with slavery in the South, and that his goal is in fact to preserve the Union. Looking to the Constitution for guidance, he asserts that the question of slavery should be answered by the individual states. As is stated in the Constitution, if a person is held to service of another in one state they cannot be free of their labor by entering another state. This applies to fugitive slaves who ran to the North for their freedom. He later mentions this as he tells the North to not return all slaves, as the South was partaking in illegal international slave trade. Lincoln sees that these problems may never be solved, and believes that a disagreement on the issue of slavery and growing disagreements on it would cause even greater problems. He emphasizes the fact the importance of the unity that the states have had since before the constitution. If they engage in hostile or friendly relations, the states should nonetheless interact for a mutual benefit. The harmful act of succession would lead to anarchy, and even more disturbingly despotism. Lincoln ends by saying that Americans should not be enemies, but friends with an emphasis on, "we must not be enemies."

LAD #13: The Clay Compromise Measures

     

         In his speech to the Senate, Calhoun makes several points explaining how the nation was becoming divided and controlled by certain sections. Firstly, he brings up the issue of slavery which had plagued the United States since its conception. Slavery was an industry that was largely centered in the Southern states. In an attempt to balance the population of slaves to the free the 3/5 Compromise was added to the Constitution. Soon though the creation of more states, which mostly became free, began to upset the balance of free to slave states in the Senate and the increase of population would skew the House of Representatives. He believed that one group of people could win government control, and exercise its authority on those who opposed it. Essentially bring back up the disturbing thought of factions gaining control of the government. Secondly, he cries out against the harmful tariffs that were being placed upon Southerners which in turn benefited the North. This unjust collection of revenue was furthering the deepening the divisions in the United States and cementing the image of the Northern elite. Along with growing immigration to northern states, it seemed that it was only a matter of time until the North could impose its will over the entire nation. Thirdly, and most frighteningly, Calhoun addresses the future of the Union. In Calhoun's eyes the differing ideologies of the North and South are pushing the South either to accept abolition, or succeed. The southern way of live depended on slavery to sustain it, and its abolition would cause a disaster. But to maintain the Union there would have to be cooperation on both sides. The stronger party, or that of the North, had to see the problems the abolition of slavery could bring and they had to come to the South's defense. Only with the help of the North could the South finally get its claim to new territories, return fugitive slaves, and cease the agitation over the issue of slavery. If this could be done, the Union would be preserved.

LAD #12: Polk's War Message

      During the Mid-19th century, the United States was troubled by its unruly Mexican neighbor. Disputed boundaries along with the aggressive actions of the Mexicans against American settlers caused Polk to respond. Initially, he pursued a policy of diplomacy by sending John Slidell to negotiate boundaries and rights of Americans. During this time period, the United States and Mexico attempted to hold an amicable relationship. This soon changed, when a military revolution gave the power to General Paredes. Unlike his predecessor, General Herrera, Paredes closed Mexico to Slidell and his envoy resulting in the end of diplomacy. Soon hostilities arose between troops stationed between the rivers Rio del Norte and the Nueces in Texas. This was a problematic area as it was annexed by the United States in 1836, furthering border disputes. The motives of both sides were unclear to the other, resulting in 16 American casualties and the beginning of a war. A war caused from rising tension and obscure borders, and that was further perpetuated by Mexico which had a history of civilian hostility.

LAD #11: Declaration of Sentiments

        Similar to the Founding Fathers, women during the mid-19th century felt as though they were being unjustly treated. In the case of the women who wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, they felt as though they were being controlled by men. So as their revolutionary fore fathers had done, these women framed their document in a similar form as the one that had created our nation. They emphasize the ideas that are embodied in the Declaration of Independence, the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. They continue by stating they too believe in the right of the people to overthrow tyrannical governments, and in their opinion it is the male gender. They include a list of grievances which include: "has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice", "He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns",  and "He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education, all colleges being closed against her." They believed their most basic of rights were being violated, so at the end of the document, the women include a list of resolutions and examples of the rights of women. They emphasize their unalienable rights, which up until that point had been severely violated.

LAD #10: Monroe Doctrine

         In his proclamation, President Monroe states that in accordance with the governments of Great Britain and of Russia, the United States are free and independent and can no longer be subject to colonization. During this time in history, Spain was undergoing a revolution itself and the president sympathized with the Spanish rebels and their quest for freedom. Similar to Washington, Monroe makes it very clear that the United States will not interfere in the events taking place over seas unless these events cause a direct threat to the United States. This position of neutrality will ensure that the United States don't become entangled in European matters, and more importantly have European governments take control and impose their ideas in the United States. This was critical because the ideas and governments of both continents are so different that their assimilation would create serious problems. Monroe concludes by emphasizing the fact that if the United States become allied with the countries of Europe that their ideas will endanger the American's peace and happiness.

LAD #9: Jefferson's First Inaugural Address

 

     Jefferson begins by humbling accepting the task of president, and that this task is almost too great for him. As he looks ahead to the development of this new nation, he can not fully understand the power that has been given to him. So he will look to the Constitution as a guide to help him steer America on the right course in these critical times. 

     He then explains the power that the people are giving up to make this new nation function. Everyone will align themselves under the Constitution, and the power of the majority will always prevail. The majority still has to respect the ideas and principles of the minority, and all will be heard. He urges the people to reject the religious and political intolerance that plagued Europe, and to unite under the idea of Republicanism. He doesn't advocate the punishment of those that think differently, but encourages them to share their opinions to prove the equality this new nation provides. He doesn't ignore the people that say this new democracy is too weak, but only replies with question. Where have the nations that let "angels" rule them ended up? History shows us the answer. 

     He then pushes his fellow Americans to pursue the idea of a Republican government, because it is what separates them from the Europeans that had once ruled over them. He stresses the fact that everyone is entitled to the same things, but they have to be reached through civil contributions and not just by their position at birth. The work of these people will make America powerful and prosperous. He says that it is also important that a good government protects is people from causing harm, while allowing them the ability to control their own lives.

     As he nears the end of his speech Jefferson sums up what he thinks the United States government should be. The most important to him which include: full agreement with the will of the majority; the maintenance of a militia, until regular soldiers are trained; freedom of speech, the press, trial by jury;equal justice to all men irregardless of their views or background; support of the State's rights to domestic policy and support of the Federal Governments foreign policy. 

     He finishes by saying that he will try to uphold these principles, and asks in advance for the unintentional mistakes he will inevitably make as he tries to guide America in the right direction.

LAD #8: Columbus Blog

     As Christopher Columbus set foot on shore, he was ushering in one of the most brutal conquests of one people over another. It is odd, and saddening that this man is so almost completely absolved of the atrocities he committed, and even given a holiday where we celebrate the beginning of many years of bloodshed. His success can not even be attributed to his own skill, apart from having the gall and ability to sail into the unknown. While it's the miscalculation that led him to the Americas that is most remembered, it should be the horrible things he did to the natives that should be ingrained in the minds of Americans. But the hundreds of thousands of Natives lives were lost in the name of progress? Zinn makes the argument that even though these terrible things happened that they shouldn't be condemned, but accepted as history. This doesn't mean that he should be condemned as an executioner, but that his impact on history is more than "sailing the ocean blue in 1492". But even if he was a man of high morals, his task lent itself to cruelty. He landed on the Americas with a very specific mission: to find gold and natives to bring back as slaves. This led to him forcing the natives to work in mines and in rivers to find gold, and if they didn't produce they had their throats cut and hands cut off. Many of the natives were captured and transported back to Europe but many died along the way. In one specific ship only two hundred of the initial five hundred made it back to Europe. His exploitation and treatment of the natives was not unlike that of the conquistadors that came after him, but yet he is somehow set above them. They are murderers and he is an "explorer", a term that is used very loosely in Columbus's case. So in the end, in my eyes, Columbus has fallen from the high pedestal that he was placed upon.

LAD #7: Washington's Farewell Adress

     In 1796, after Washington already had two terms as president, he says that he will not be putting his name in contention for the next election. The citizens of the United States were in his mind as he chose to resign, and he wanted to assure them that he was still very motivated about the future of America. He had considered retiring earlier, but it wouldn't have been appropriate at the time. He still thanks the nation he helped create for the opportunities it gave him, and he hopes that now he can finally end his public life.
     He goes on to give his remarks and ideas about things that were changing in America. He begins by saying that this new union of states was powerful, but only if the people that comprised them saw each other almost as family. They may have different religions, or they may be of different background but they share common values and goals. He gives an example of the this dependence by using the different regions of the United States. The North relied heavily on its maritime commerce and commercial goods, while the South was more agricultural. But it was the rivers of the South that allowed the ships of the North to get to different markets, while the South relied on the goods that the North could supply. The East and West also relied on a similar relationship. The East produced the goods that would be sent West, while the West was shipping raw materials into the East that they desperately relied on. Cooperation was the key as America forged its future. There may be people that try to divide America, and if they succeed then the nation would end in shambles.
     After he is finished explaining the importance of union, he goes on to give his opinions on certain parts of the government. He emphasizes the need for checks and balances, as so many of the time did. Taxation should be used sparingly, and shouldn't be relied on to pay for an outrageous debt. During peace, people should hardly be taxed because there is no need to pay for military expenses. But for this new government and nation to work, the nation should be guided by religion and strong morals. Because, according to Washington, this is what promotes political prosperity.
       Next, Washington condemns the formation of political parties. Parties are never to be formed, and especially on geographical lines which would only cause resentment and hatred. If parties gained power, it would eventually lead to parties ruling over parties. And as history has shown, this kind of government only leads to a Despotic government. The tensions caused by political parties would also leave the nation susceptible to foreign influence, which is never good. This is where Washington goes on to further support his Proclamation of Neutrality.
     While his main piece of advice is to stay neutral, he says that a friendly relationship should be kept with all nations. But if there is too much devotion, or hate for that matter, the United States will practically be slaves to the other nations. If policy is changed to help or hurt a foreign nation, policies that America was founded upon, then they do practically own us. They can bend us to their will almost unintentionally. 
     Washington concludes by saying that he can retire knowing that this new nation is under the supervision of a united and free government.

LAD #6: Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality

   


        In 1793, Washington takes the position that the United States should keep a "friendly and impartial" relationship with the European powers. Basically he is stating that the United States should stay neutral. He goes on to warn the general populous that if they in someway violate the relationship, or lack there of, that they are to completely avoid those actions. He also declares that a citizen will not receive the protection of the United States, if they are caught transporting contraband. And that all people will be prosecuted if they violate the laws of the United States, or any other nation.

Republican Motherhood Blog

1. What role did the Revolutionary War play in the transformation of housewifery to Republican Motherhood?

     As a free nation, life in the colonies was about to change. Ideas that had been stewing in the minds of the colonists, now could be expressed. And it was these very ideas that America unique and great. With these changes in thinking came a change in how women were perceived in society. There was a shift from seeing woman as solely child bearers to them being educators in a way. People thought at the time that since women were so instrumental in the raising of the future leaders of the nation, that they should have an education that would allow the to teach their sons in the principles of liberty and government (Doc. B). And that they should have a strong enough knowledge of written English, arithmetic, and geograpy (Doc B.) But they should be educated in these sujects just enough that they can prepare their sons for their lives.  

2. What were the consequences of Republican Motherhood on women?

       As I said previously, there was a shift from women being seen as almost exclusively as childbearers to them gaining importance as educators. As Mary Morris said women were the ones behind boys "ripening into manhood" and facilitating the "gradual openings of their minds." (Doc. C) With this came respect, and some recognition that her influence played an important role in America. 

3. What was the significance of the ideology of Republican Motherhood as a stage in the process of women's socialization?

     Even though women had a very important role in America's infacy, women did some restrictions. Since the only, and these are ideas of the time, useful place for women was in the sphere of the home they didn't have much power outside of it (Doc A). They were also responsible with raising sons, and daughters, with good morals and a strong character (Doc D). This expectation would restrict the women to the home for hundreds if years to come.

1. Describe the setting.

     The potrait is set inside of a home, with the family sitting on a couch. The home seems to be modest and well kept, even though not much can be seen. The light seems to be shining on the mother, or Mary Gibson Tilghman, and then it falls onto her sons.

2. Who serves at the center of the portrait and why? How does the woman look? How is she "republican" rather than aristocratic?

     Mrs. Tilghman is seated in the center of the portrait. This is to emphasize her importance in the context of the home. She is modestly dressed and she is smiling, to suggest that she is happy but also working. Her clothing and the positioning of herself and her children or more "republican" than aristocratic. She isn't wearing an elegant dress, and she is sitting casually with her children on her lap.

3. What values do her sons exhibit?

     They are sitting up with good posture, and are smiling slightly. This suggests that they are well mannered.

4. Is there significance to the position of Mrs. Tilgham's arm?

     It is on her sons lap, in a slightly protective position. This displays the role women took in the lives of their children, while also depicting the love and affection of a mother for her son.

LAD #5: Federalist #10

1. Why are factions so difficult to eliminate?

     The only way to eliminate factions is to limit the civil liberties of the people. But this restriction is in complete contradiction of the ideas laid out in the Declaration of Independence. It also causes great damage to the rights of other citizens. In an attempt to control the factions that are in a nation, officials may pass legislature that would also limit the rights of law abiding citizens. Freedom also allows factions to form, and for them to spread their harmful ideas. And since each person is entitled to their own beliefs, it is extremely difficult to weed out the bad without attacking peoples civil liberties.
2. If factions cannot be removed then how can they be controlled?

     If a faction is a minority, then eventually it can be defeated by the majority. This is very unreliable though, because malicious factions can take control over the country if they get more than fifty percent of the population to side with them. Two solutions to this problem are the Electoral College, and the other is a bicameral legislature. The Electoral College relies on people with better morals that are given the power to control votes. This is how the theory behind how the president is elected. While a bicameral legislature would give large and small states the same amount of power, and say in the government.

Blog #4 - Revolution Article

This article dispelled some ideas that I had about the Revolutionary War. It was interesting and shocking to learn about something I thought I knew well.

1. The first thing that struck me was that many people thought that the Civil War was more significant than the Revolutionary War. I had always thought the birth of our nation was more important than a war fought over slavery. But learning this lead me to discover something intriguing. That history can be changed as it happens, it can be diluted or concentrated so that many years later what happened and what is thought to have happened are very different.

2. It is odd how people thought of the revolution compared to the Civil War. They found the Civil War to be a great war with sacrifice and death. And this was true of the revolution, they saw war as a way to solidify American nationalism and that it was a critical step in the building of a new nation. But when the militiamen were easily beaten in the War of 1812 may have caused this idea to shift. How could this ragtag army be so powerful? And it was after this that there was a shift from politics being more significant than war. This changed the way the revolution was remembered, and it eventually caused people to think that the revolution was less bloody than the Civil War.

3. This leads to the next thing I learned. The American Revolution was bloody. Very bloody. This my seem obvious, but I seem to have become a victim of the manipulated history of our nation's birth. Paintings of time almost romanticize the Revolution. Washington Crossing the Delaware isn't exactly what happened that night, but we take it almost as fact. When I think of the Revolutionary War I think of the protestation of taxes, civil disobedience, political maneuvering, but not as much of the gruesome battles that actually happened. This may be the fault of contemporary artwork, but nonetheless the grotesque battles of the revolution can't be ignored. Soldiers described the battles as the "most infernal fire", with cannons destroying everything in their path, or musket fire mangling the enemy lines. This was not a war won only through politics, but also through the horrendous acts that soldiers had to endure to ensure that their nation had a chance.

4. The amount of suffering that soldiers went through is shocking. I had prieviously thought that Valley Forge had been the worst time for American soldiers, while in fact the war was terrible all of the time for everyone. Men didn't have enough supplies to keep them healthy, many died as a result. Bloody footsteps would be left behind by soldiers without even shoes to wear. The only thing they lacked more was food. These men would resort to very desperate measures to stay alive. It has been documented that some soldiers would try to eat bark or boil their shoes down into a soup with melted candles. These are horrible conditions that I had severely underestimated.

5. Not only did the soldies suffer, but the atrocities committed by the soldiers on civilians is more shocking. Learning about the Revolutionary War in school, it was never really mentioned how soldiers would treat civilians, or how they played into the revolution (other than protest and civil disobedience). So when I read that many civilians had been "killed in their beds" while trying to get to safety is eye opening. DIsease and Native American attacks also took a toll. But it is also not explained to a good extent how badly Loyalists were treated. After the war was over five percent of Loyalists went into exile, compared to not even one percent of Confederates in the Civil War.

Overall, this article made the revolution real in a way that shocked me into really re-thinking our nation's history.

LAD #3: Declaration of Independence

 

1. Democratic Principles

     The Declaration contain the democratic principles that this nation is founded upon. There are several very important ones that the Americans want to make sure that are conveyed. The first is that all men are created equal, a very important one that is used thoroughout American history. Secondly, it states that all men are granted certain unalienable rights that include life, liberty, and the pusuit of happiness. Thirdly, they go on to explain that a government gets its power from the consent of the people. In the case that this government begins to interfere with these rights then the people have the right to overthrow it and institute a new government. These are the quintessential American principles that make the United States the land of the free.

2. List of Grievances

      The Americans behind the Declaration wrote out a long list of grievances that they have with the British. But this long list can be boiled down to a few categories. The first category is primarily about the laws being passed, or the lack of, that were effecting the colonists in a negative way, or actions of British officials and primarily the king himself. For example, the Americans write that "He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importancem unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend them." The second category is concerned with the problems caused with the occupation of the colonies by British soldiers. The Americans are angry of the power that they have over the people, but also the injustices they feel were committed against them. For instance they were none too pleased with the acquittal of British soldiers after the Boston massacre. The third category talks about of foreign affairs and trade. They are angry with the restrictions of trade that have been placed on them, and also they are outraged the oppression that they are facing at sea.

3. The Conclusion

     In the end, the Americans write that they are now an independent nation. But, interestingly, they begin their conclusion with saying that they have almost been pushed to this division because of they failed attempts of the British to deal with the problems the Americans lamented about. So once again, they end by saying that they are now independent and that they have the powers that all independent countries have, which includes they ability to wage war.

LAD #2: John Peter Zenger

1) Who was John Peter Zenger?

          In 1733, John Peter Zenger began his publishing career in New York when he began to print his Weekly Journal. In his newspaper he criticized the decision of colonial governor William Cosby to remove Chief Justice Lewis Morris. Cosby had come to New York and argued over his salary, and when he lost control of the court he removed the Chief Justice.  Hired by the opposition party, Zenger published several stories critical of Cosby. Once Cosby found out, he had Zenger arrested and charged with seditious libel.

2) What was the controversy over his charges? Talk about Hamilton's defense.

       The prosecution said that the fact that these articles had been published was sufficient to convict Zenger. This meant that in the opinion of person in power anyone could be thrown in jail for publishing even the most harmless of stories. Hamilton didn't disagree that Zenger had attacked the governor, but he argued that it was only libel if what Zenger had said was false.

3) What influence did his case have on American government tradition?

       This case proved that truth was a defense for libel. Not only this, but by disagreeing with Cosby the jury created the power that they could disagree with the ideas of those in the government.

4) What is the lasting significance of his trial?

        The most important outcome of this case, was the freedom of the press. It was now legal to write about anything, as long as it was true. This is an extremely important right to the American people.